Silent films are a tough sell for many modern audiences, but if you can get beyond the need for dialogue, many silent films are stunning works of art worth seeing. The most productive silent films come from all genres; However, comedy and horror are among the most prominent genres of the silent film era. As magic lantern displays and strobe animation began to gain popularity in the 1830s, the first “movie” screening was organized in 1895 through the Lumière brothers in Paris. They introduced their generation through scenes of everyday French life; However, the oldest surviving silent “film” is a two-second clip titled Roundhay Garden Scene, from 1888. By the early 20th century, narrative films were on the rise, giving rise to many of the they would consider silent films most important. never done. Whether you’re new to silent cinema or a 1920s cinephile, this list is a wonderful entry into the rich, forgotten world of silent cinema.
While there are modern silent classics, such as 2011’s The Artist and even 2024’s Hundreds of Beavers, this list focuses on pre-1930s films, a.k.a. the silent film era (with one noted exception). While there are earlier and later entries in this period, most define the silent era as cinema from 1894 to 1929. While this list looks broadly at films from this era, most of the entries come from the 1920s, when silent film production reached its height.
Although the silent film era ended late, the first “talking” or debate film, The Jazz Singer, replaced the motion picture industry in 1927. In many ways, the expired silent films were much more complex than the early talkies, since they included complex directing techniques. , acrobatics and even Technicolor/Kinemacolor. By the end of the era, even synchronized sound (usually orchestration and sound effects) was used, blurring the line of when the silent film era ended. Silent films can be difficult to immerse yourself in. Many films are long, but there are major upheavals in the silent film era. Many films involve racism, which can be very disturbing to fashionable audiences. Many films (especially from the early part of the era) have now been lost because no edition of them is known. This list doesn’t shy away from those questions, but it takes them into account. The films on this list are ranked based on several factors, including ancient significance, technological advancements, and overall quality.
Blood and Sand stars one of the biggest names of the silent era, Rudolph Valentino, as a Spanish matador torn between a friend from his formative years and a seductress. Directed by Fred Niblo, the film stars Lila Lee, Nita Naldi and Rosa Rosanova.
The film was based on the 1908 novel Blood and Sand by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez and a 1921 play (also based on the novel) by Thomas Cushing. The film was parodied in another wonderful 1922 silent film, Mud and Sand, starring Stan Laurel. Blood and Sand is more dated than some of the other videos on this list, but Valentino’s charm sells that movie. You can stream and then watch the movie here.
Mary Pickford was an icon of the silent film era. She was even nicknamed “America’s Sweetheart” for her silent film career. Although many of his films are not considered classics, any silent film fan will have to see a Pickford film. His latest silent film, My Best Girl, is a great place to start. The romantic comedy follows a woman who falls in love with a co-worker who turns out to be her boss’s compromised son.
Directed by Sam Taylor, the film also stars Charles “Buddy” Rogers (Pickford and Rogers would later marry in 1937 after her divorce from Douglas Fairbanks). Pickford prepared for the role by presenting herself as a saleswoman in disguise, where she remained anonymous even at the height of her fame. Notably, Pickford also produced the film, written through two women, Hope Loring and Kathleen Norris. The film is funny, sweet and well-directed. My best girl lately won’t be had to be streamed, but it can be discovered online.
Although Japan is overlooked as a major player in film history, there are several silent film classics from the early Japanese film industry, such as Kenji Mizoguchi’s The Water Magician, Kenji Mizoguchi’s I Am Born, but. . . , Yasujirō Ozu, and Crossroads, by Teinosuke Kinugasa. However, arguably the most productive film of the Japanese silent era is Kinugasa’s A Page of Madness.
The experimental horror film was considered a lost film for over 40 years until a copy was discovered in warehouses in 1971. Starring Masao Inoue and Yoshie Nakagawa, the film follows a janitor at a psychiatric hospital and his wife, who She is a patient. The film comes from the avant-garde artists’ organization Shinkankakuha (School of New Perceptions). Nobel laureate Yasunari Kawabata is credited with the story, but the film was written collaboratively. Godzilla’s Eiji Tsuburaya is also credited as a camera assistant in the film. You can stream the movie here.
Häxan is one of the strangest films on this list. The Swedish silent horror film is partly filmed as a documentary about witchcraft. Although it was reissued in the 1960s with narration by William S. Burroughs, the original is a silent film. The film is divided into seven parts that tell the story of witchcraft and demons.
The film includes amazing special effects that make use of stop-motion, make-up and superimposition. The film has taken on a cult status, especially among lovers of experimental movies and art films. Häxan was directed by Benjamin Christensen. Adam Scovell wrote of the film on its 100th anniversary for the BBC, “It is a deeply innovative blueprint for so much horror that was to follow. Its sleight-of-hand mixing of the real and the fantastical became genuinely revolutionary. One hundred years after its initial domestic release, the film still plays a notable role in the history of horror.” It is available on multiple platforms.
Winner of the first Academy Award for Best Picture in 1929, Wings is a romantic war film about two pilots in love with the same girl. The film stars Clara Bow, Charles “Buddy” Rogers and Richard Arlen. Bow is Paramount’s biggest star and also starred in It that same year, the film that popularized the “It girl” concept.
Wings was directed by William A. Wellguy in part because he was the only Hollywood director at the time reveling as a World War I fighter pilot. The film includes some unexpected scenes for the 1920s, adding nudity (the men appear to need a medical examination in the background of one scene and Bow is briefly topless). There is also a kiss between a boy and his dying friend that is rarely cited as an early LGBTQ milestone (this is up for debate, however). Wings was considered a lost film for many years before a nitrate print was discovered in the archives of the Cinémathèque française; It has since been preserved in the Library of Congress. It is available for streaming here.
Safety comes last! It includes one of the most iconic photographs of silent comedy: Harold Lloyd hanging from the hands of a clock. While names like Keaton and Chaplin are better known to the posh crowd, Lloyd is a titan of silent comedy and hugely influential in the genre. Safety comes last! It follows a man who moves to a big city in hopes of making enough money to start a life with his fiancée.
While Lloyd did some of his own stunts, he also notably used stunt performers in Safety Last! It is also often considered the first film to use thought-through safety devices during stunts (including harnesses and mattresses). The film is available to stream through multiple services.
Lon Chaney’s haunting face from this early adaptation of The Phantom of the Opera is an iconic image in the history of cinematic horror. The film contains an early example of a jump scare, which reportedly led some to scream and faint in theaters. While it probably won’t make modern audiences faint, it is a creepy and effective adaptation of the 1910 novel of the same name.
The film has a confusing history with multiple reissues, including a 1929 sound release (however, the 1929 version is currently considered a lost film after the reels were destroyed in a 1948 studio fire). While Rupert Julian is credited as the director, others worked on the film, including Ernst Laemmle. The film stars Chaney, Norman Kerry and Mary Philbin. The Phantom of the Opera is streaming on multiple platforms.
King Vidor’s The Crowd follows a guy who travels to the city only to find himself trapped in a dead-end life in a limited company. The film stars James Murray and Eleanor Boardguy, who were intentionally cast as “unknown” actors. Although it gained mixed reviews upon release, it has been largely re-evaluated.
It is a film about “real people” with very little plot, which still feels somewhat unique, but is especially notable in early film history. However, what makes The Crowd really special is its visuals and camera work. The use of a tracking shot in a large corporate office is especially iconic. The film can be found on streaming here.
Les Vampires is a ten-episode series released between 1915 and 1916, which almost brings it closer to a “silent television program. ” The series follows a journalist who confronts a gang of criminals called “The Vampires” (although the call suggests a supernatural component, it is a crime thriller).
Les Vampires is director Louis Feuillade’s masterpiece and is an important work in the history of the thriller genre. The techniques used in it inspired directors like Alfred Hitchcock, Alain Resnais and Fritz Lang. The film stars Édouard Mathé and Musidora. If watched all together, Les Vampires is nearly seven hours long, which may turn some viewers off, but it is a beautiful and important piece of early film history. Unfortunately it is often unavailable to stream.
Silent films are a hard enough sell to many audiences. Add in the fact that Man With The Movie Camera is an experimental Soviet art-documentary silent film, and it won’t be for everyone. Directed by Dziga Vertov, the film has no actors or plot but follows a man as he captures a day in the life of the city.
Man With The Movie Camera is probably most notable for its creative editing. The film uses techniques such as multiple exposure, slow motion, Dutch angles, excessive close-ups, tight cuts, jump cuts, tracking shows, and split screens (some of which were invented by Vertov). Array The film was first rejected. Sergei Eisenstein even called it “useless photographic vandalism. ” However, it has been widely reevaluated. The Oleksandr Dovzhenko National Film Center even placed it at number 3 on its list of the hundred most productive films in the history of Ukrainian cinema in 2021. The film is available on various platforms.
While many films on this list come from the late silent period, A Trip to the Moon is one of the earliest examples of narrative silent film. Written, directed, produced by and starring Georges Méliès, the film follows an astronomy club that embarks on a trip to the moon to meet aliens. The film is one of the first science fiction paintings and an example of a “trick movie”, one of the first genres to feature creative special effects. Even if you haven’t seen this movie, you’ve probably noticed its reference, particularly a moon with a rocket in its eye.
Méliès began his career as a magician and top performer. He went on to direct more than 500 films; However, during the 1920s he was largely forgotten, partly because during World War I many of his films were confiscated and melted by the French army. Angry, Méliès burns his own negatives. However, in the late 1920s, he was approached by several journalists who wrote about the history of cinema and a retrospective of his paintings was shown at the Salle Pleyel. He is an essential figure in the beginnings of cinema and was even one of the first filmmakers to use storyboarding. A Trip to the Moon is probably Méliès’ best-known painting, along with The Impossible Voyage from 1904. A Trip to the Moon was a lost film for several years, and although Méliès made a hand-colored edition, this edition was not It was only rediscovered in 1993 and not restored until 2011. The film can be found here.
Although Buster Keaton was an icon of silent comedies, many of his films will likely turn off mainstream audiences with their widespread use of blackface and jokes that don’t age well. However, Sherlock Jr. is largely untouched by vaudevillian racism. , which makes it much more appropriate than other Keaton works like Seven Chances and College.
The film follows a projectionist who is worried about stealing from his fiancée’s father and dreams of clearing his call as a detective. The film is fun, fast and short, making it a wonderful film for those who are intimidated by the global world. Silent cinema. Sherlock Jr. is available to stream on platforms.
The Adventures of Prince Achmed comes with some caution regarding racist cartoons. Not everything about it ages perfectly, but it’s an incredibly vital work, especially in the history of animated films. Directed by Lotte Reiniger, the film is by far the first animated feature film.
A strategy similar to the Indonesian art of Wayang shadow puppetry was made and encouraged through Hanna Diyab’s Arabian Nights (although it mixes several stories). Reiniger’s previous film, 1922’s Cinderella, used a similar paper-cutting style, which established her as a component. of an organization of German experimental animators of the time. He directed several more animated films in Germany before having to flee due to his outspoken left-wing politics and the rise of the Nazi Party. However, it continued until the late 1970s. The Adventures of Prince Ahmed was heavily censored in the 1920s because it included two blatantly homosexual characters kissing. Reiniger was passionate about destigmatizing homosexuality and thought it was important to include it in a children’s film. It is available on several platforms, including Kanopy.
Many would include D. W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation in the list of the most productive silent films. Although it is a vital film in film history and Griffith’s influence on cinema is undeniable, it is too violently racist to include. Birth of A Nation isn’t suitable for modern audiences (and really wasn’t suitable for new audiences either. . . it’s still one of the highest-grossing films ever made, it was also boycotted by the NAACP when it was released in 1915).
However, if you are looking for a D. W. Griffith film to watch (possibly because of his pioneering camera work or contributions to the history narrative film), Way Down East is a much gentler choice. The film follows a woman after she is tricked into having a baby out of wedlock and is shunned by her small town. The film is most remembered for its famous ice floe scene. However, maybe it should be remembered for a powerhouse performance by Lillian Gish. The film also stars Richard Barthelmess. Like many Griffith films, Way Down East is very long but doesn’t have the preachiness that weighs many of his most famous works down. Way Down East is available on multiple platforms.
While many of Alfred Hitchcock’s early silent films are lost, The Lodger: A Story of The London Fog is one of three silent films from 1927 to survive from the director. The Lodger was also his first thriller- a genre he would later become synonymous with. It is also the first of his films to feature a cameo appearance from Hitchcock.
Starring Marie Ault, Arthur Chesney, June Tripp and Malcolm Keen, the film follows a circle of relatives who welcome a new tenant but begin to wonder if he is a murderer who preys on women who look like their daughter. While Hitchcock’s later films are far from better known, The Lodger is by far his most productive silent film. The film can be discovered here.
Erich von Stroheim’s Greed is an early example of a psychological drama film. It tells the story of a housewife whose life is turned upside down after she wins the lottery. The film was shot on-location (mainly in San Francisco and Death Valley, California), which was fairly unheard of in the 1920s. The film stars ZaSu Pitts, Gibson Gowland and Jean Hersholt.
The film originally ran for approximately 8 hours, but was edited against von Stroheim’s wishes. The maximum cut noted is around two and a half hours. The original cut was only noticed by a handful of people and has been lost in the media lately (many film historians consider it a “holy grail”). While some point to Citizen Kane as a pioneering film in the use of deep concentration (a strategy in which the foreground, middle, and background are all concentrated), Greed uses it seventeen years earlier. The film also uses Soviet-style montages and close-ups in a strangely modern way.
Although Greed is lost, the 140-minute edition can be discovered here.
This silent epic of the Soviet war is best known for its Odessa Marches series; However, the battleship Potemkin has much more to offer. Directed by Sergei Eisenstein, the film dramatizes a 1905 mutiny that leads tsarist foot soldiers into a bloodbath and uprising in Odessa.
The film is divided into five acts. Act IV: The Odessa Marches is an early and influential use of editing. Eisenstein was an influential figure in Soviet editing theory, which emphasizes the extensive use of editing and juxtaposition of photographs in films. The Odessa Stairs montage influenced many films and was referenced in many later films, including The Untouchables, Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith and Dune. Battleship Potemkin is available to stream on platforms.
The Wind is a synchronized sound film starring Lillian Gish, Lars Hanson, Montagu Love and Dorothy Cumming. The film follows a woman who moves to West Texas only to be plagued by family conflicts, suitors, and a relentless wind. It’s an emotional drama that remains heartbreaking almost a hundred years later.
Based on the novel of the same name written by Frances Marion, the film directed by Victor Sjöström. Although the film finished in 1927, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer did not release it until 1928, which served as the first “talkie”: 1927’s The Jazz Singer replaced what audiences had come to expect from movies. As it was silent, The Wind was overlooked and performed poorly at the box office. However, The Wind marks the end of an era in many ways. It is the last major silent film released through MGM, one of Sjöström’s last films in the United States, and the last silent film of one of the biggest stars of the era, Gish. Here you can have wind.
One of Charlie Chaplin’s many films starring his character The Tramp, The Gold Rush is one of the actor’s works. The film follows the Tramp as he joins the Klondike Gold Rush, tries to get rich, and falls in love with a waitress. The film also stars Georgia Hale, Mack Swain, and Tom Murray.
The Gold Rush is also inspired by the Donner Party and the opening scene was filmed on location in Truckee, California (near Donner Pass and Donner Lake). The film is a wildly ambitious comedy that was a huge box office success for Chaplin. It has an unexpected amount of drama for a slapstick comedy, but it combines the two beautifully. It is included in lists of the most productive silent films and, more sometimes, in lists of the most productive films. It was released in 1942 with recorded score, narration via Chaplin, and faster editing. Ultimately, the 1925 edition is 100% based on Rotten Tomatoes. It is available for streaming here.
Directed by Luis Buñuel, Un Chien Andalou is an artistic short film co-written by Salvador Dalí. It is one of the most notable short films ever made and an important surrealist film of avant-garde cinema. Un Chien Andalou is an intentionally provocative film that has no plot. Instead, it follows a kind of dream logic through strange and unpleasant images, including, most notably, an eye cut with a razor.
An Andalusian Dog is Buñuel’s first film. He would go on to become one of the most influential directors in his almost 50-year career. He attended the film’s premiere with rocks in his pockets, fearing that the audience would rise up in protest. , the film was well-received, including through Surrealist movement leader André Breton and Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa, who ranked it among his favorite films of all time. If you’re interested in the old art movies, Man Ray’s The Starfish (1928) is another must-see. An Andalusian dog can be found here.
The General is a classic comedy by Buster Keaton. The film was inspired by the Civil War’s Great Locomotive Chase and follows a Southern railroad engineer who must pursue Union soldiers after his fiancée accidentally gets stuck on a commandeered train. Keaton stars opposite Marion Mack and notably performs all his own stunts in this film.
The film was incredibly expensive to make and contains the most expensive shot in a silent film (unsurprisingly, it’s an accident of exercise). Although The General did not perform well at the box office to justify its price, it earned masterpiece status. It was one of the first 25 films kept in the Library of Congress in 1989. Not everything ages well in this film. The film is based on William Pittenger’s memoirs, The Great Locomotive Chase. However, Pittenger was a Union soldier and the story is told from the perspective of the North. Keaton replaced the story with a Confederate hero, and the film valorizes the Confederacy. Keaton himself said, “It is extraordinarily difficult to make heroes of the Yankees,” a position popular in early accounts of the Civil War. The film can be discovered here.
While a non-silent edition of this vampire crop returns to screens in 2024, the original Nosferatu is a German expressionist horror film from director F. W. Murnau. Sometimes also Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror, the film is an unofficial version of Bram Stoker’s 1897 novel. Dracula.
Although the film had some differences from Dracula, Stoker’s widow filed a lawsuit and a ruling ruled that all copies of the film would be destroyed. Although most copies were destroyed, some foreign copies survived and a lengthy recovery procedure was undertaken to save the vampire classic. The film stars Max Schreck, Gustav von Wangenheim and Greta Schröder. Although some have criticized the film for imaginable anti-Semitic stereotypes, Murnau was not a known anti-Semite (and as a gay man in the 1920s, Germany was probably aware of the growing tensions with “foreigners” during the filming of the film). A Jewish actor, Alexander Granach, also appears in the film. Nosferatu remains a cult horror classic. Fans looking for Murnau’s other horror adaptations also deserve to check out his silent adaptation of Faust from 1926. Nosferatu is streaming on multiple platforms.
Metropolis through Fritz Lang is a German science fiction masterpiece. The film is a dystopian story about a futuristic city with a deficient belly and a guy who hopes to help the staff below. The film was incredibly beloved to make and was produced during Gerguyy’s Weimar period.
While it is now widely regarded as a masterpiece, it received poor reviews upon its release. Some thought the film was too communist. H.G. Wells wrote, “I have recently seen the silliest film. I do not believe it would be possible to make one sillier.” It currently holds a 97% on Rotten Tomatoes and has been reassessed largely for its impressive visuals. However, its story also feels like it has aged well. It is available on many streaming platforms.
Another film by F. W. Murnau, Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans, follows the wife of a farmer after her husband’s affair partner tries to convince him to murder her. The film stars Janet Gaynor and George O’Brien. Sunrise was one of Murnau’s final films and the first that he made after emigrating to Hollywood from Germany in 1926. However, it is arguably his masterpiece.
The film won 3 Academy Awards at the first Academy Awards in 1929: Best Single and Artistic Film, Best Cinematography, and Best Actress for Gaynor (who won for 3 roles, the Wife in Sunrise, Diane in 7th Heaven, and Angela in Street Angel). It’s also one of the first 25 films decided to keep at the Library of Congress in 1989. Stream it here.
The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari is a German expressionist horror film. The film follows a hypnotist who brainwashes a sleepwalker and uses it to commit murder. The film uses painted sets, which gives it a dark and twisted feel.
Directed by Robert Wiene, it stars Werner Krauss and Conrad Veidt. It has become particularly vital in the horror and cult film genres as one of the earliest seminal works. It is the most prominent example of a German Expressionist film, part of the broader Expressionist art movement of the early 20th century. These films reached their peak in 1920s Berlin and rejected cinematic realism. While all German Expressionist films used visual distortions or exaggerated acting to represent the inner feelings or conflicts of the “artists,” The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari takes this concept to the limit by constructing a world that is deeply human and, without however, unrecognizable. It is available on various platforms (often for free).
Directed by master Danish filmmaker Carl Theodor Dreyer, The Passion of Joan of Arc is a vintage of French cinema. The film is based in particular on the minutes of Joan of Arc. The film has appeared on best-of lists, including those of the BBC and Cahiers du Cinéma. The film stars Renée Jeanne Falconetti, Eugène Silvain, André Berley and Maurice Schutz.
Although The Passion of Joan of Arc is silent, it seems like one of the most fashionable movies on this list. The film features a lot of close-ups to show the emotion and amazing acting. Roger Ebert wrote in 1997: “We cannot know the history of silent cinema without knowing the face of Renée Maria Falconetti. In a world without words, where filmmakers believed that the camera captured the essence of the characters through their faces, to see Falconetti in Dreyer’s “The Passion of Joan of Arc” (1928) is to look into eyes that will never leave you. Find it here.
Technically, City Lights is a movie with synchronized sound (a movie with synchronized music and sound effect tracks). As “sound films” gained popularity when Charlie Chaplin began screening the film in the late 1920s, he decided to do so voluntarily without empleándolo. de dialogue.
Written, directed, produced and starring Chaplin, City Lights is a masterwork from the silent star. The film follows a tramp who tries to make money for a blind flower girl facing eviction. The film was popular upon its release and has been heralded by critics since. James Agee said of the film’s final scene in 1949, “[it’s] the greatest single piece of acting ever committed to celluloid.” The film was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in 1991. Chaplin’s next film, 1936’s Modern Times, is also a masterpiece; however, Modern Times is a “partial talkie,” making City Lights arguably his last silent film. It is available to stream on multiple platforms.
Bottom Line
As film technology progresses, the silent era can feel dated and forgotten; however, there is so much to love about silent films, especially those of the 1920s. These are foundational works that often feel daring, inventive and advanced. Seeing them is essential for any true lover of cinema and film history.
There is rarely a “first silent film,” partly because there is no genuine boundary between what was a technological experiment and what is considered a film. Technically, the oldest surviving film clip is from 1888, titled The Roundhay Garden Scene; It only lasts two seconds and is not narrative. However, Eadweard Muybridge’s “The Horse in Motion” predates this by ten years. The challenge is that “The Horse in Motion” is a set of “automatic electrophotographs” and not technically a film. These definitional challenges abounded in pre-1900 cinema as the medium developed. Most of the early films are slices of everyday life, with men dancing together, staff chasing factory equipment, and an exercise leaving a station.
The situation is more confusing because many of the early films are lost media. The oldest known lost film is Young Griffo vs. The lost films and lost media factor didn’t end with the silent film era (the 1980s even has some lost films), but it was more prevalent in the early years of cinema. 90% of films made before 1929 are considered lost films.
The silent film era saw the first movie stars. Mary Pickford, an icon of early cinema. In 1916, she became Hollywood’s first female millionaire. If she’s a popular actress, she’s also an entrepreneurial businesswoman. He co-founded United Artists with other greats of the time, Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks and D. W. Griffith, in 1919. He was also one of the 36 founding members of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1927. Her movie star character was nicknamed “America’s Sweetheart,” but for her contributions to the industry, she was nicknamed “The Queen of Cinema. ”
In comedy, there was Chaplin and Buster Keaton. In the romances, there were Fairbanks and “The Latin Lover” Rudolph Valentino (who was truly Italian). Other icons include “The First Lady of American Cinema,” Lillian Gish, “The It Girl,” Clara Bow and horror icon Lon Chaney. However, there were notable stars, especially in the early films, who have somehow been lost to history, such as “The Vamp” Theda Bara. Although Bara was Fox’s biggest star in the 1910s and is considered one of Hollywood’s earliest sex symbols, most of her films have been lost. Although he made more than 40 films in his career, only about five have been lost.
Buster Keaton is often modern audiences’ way into appreciating silent films. His films are generally not too long, fast-paced and packed with impressive stunt work that will keep audiences rapt. However, Keaton films can also be uncomfortable due to racism, including blackface and racialized character depictions.
However, a wonderful overall selection is 1924’s Sherlock Jr. , which follows Keaton as a projectionist accused of theft. Keaton’s film is arguably The General from 1927. The film is animated through the wonderful locomotive chase of the Civil War. Although the film appreciates the Confederacy, it does not explore the racial history of this period. Instead, the Civil War primarily serves as a backdrop for high-octane stunts and exercise blunders.
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